Reflection Blog Entry 7 Week 8 - Standardized Testing

Description

The focus for EDAT 6115 this week was on formative and summative assessments within the classroom. In Chapter 14 Slavin guides in how to identify the different types of standardized tests and their uses. The chapter also addresses issues that are related to standardized testing and the various in-class testing. Slavin also discusses how teachers can be held accountable for their students’ achievements on assessments. Lastly, Slavin describes how knowledge of standardized tests and accountability can inform the intentional teacher. (Slavin, 2020)

Analysis

            Slavin begins with a teacher conference with parents to discuss standardized assessment scores and share the student’s portfolio. Slavin (2020) states that “Taken together, cautiously interpreted standardized tests, grades, portfolios of work, and other classroom assessments provide a good picture of Anita’s performance”(p.392). Slavin continues by reminding the reader that each type of assessment has some value and can assist teachers in evaluating the student and making decisions for educational purposes. (Slavin, 2020)

            A standardized test is given under conditions that would be the same in each classroom. Most have a script for the test monitor/teacher to read to ensure that all students receive the same instruction for the assessment. The students who take the test would be similar most likely in age or grade level. The test publisher can establish norms based on scores because the conditions and questions for the assessment are the same, or standardized. (Slavin, 2020)

            Many standardized tests are used to compare groups of or individual students with each other. This allows students, parents, teachers, administrators, and other stakeholders to determine if the students are making adequate progress and their performance levels of the students. (Slavin, 2020)

            Slavin reminds us that there are some important functions surrounding standardized assessments. Those functions can include “placement, diagnosis, evaluation, and school improvement” (Slavin, 2020, p. 393). Placement refers to the placement of students in select programs such as gifted, special education, or college entrance. Diagnosis is usually about students with learning problems and determining strengths and weaknesses as well as specific learning disabilities that may be present. Evaluation can be about student progress, teacher progress, or school progress. “For individual students, standardized test scores are meaningful in evaluation only if you use them along with other information” (Slavin, 2020, p. 394). In other words, the teacher could also provide portfolio information and classroom grades and test scores, or other standardized assessments to gain the whole picture of student performance. School improvement is another area where standardized assessment is used to determine if a school is performing well, the types of school counseling needed, as well as creating action plans for the school year. (Slavin, 2020)

            There are a few common types of standardized tests that are given. Aptitude tests, norm0referenced achievement tests, and criterion-referenced achievement tests are the most typical types of standardized assessments given. Achievement tests can be used to make predictions about student performance, diagnose student difficulties in specific areas, they can serve as a formative assessment for student progress, and serve as a summative test of student learning. (Slavin, 2020)

            A norm-referenced test is an assessment that tests the students’ knowledge of specific content areas such as reading or math. These norms are taken from representative groups of similar ages, grades, and settings, and compared to other students. These tests are used nationwide to compare groups of students, so the range of questions is not wide. (Slavin, 2020)

            Criterion-referenced will assess students’ knowledge of content areas such as math or reading. However, these assessments do not compare students against other students or national norms. Criterion-referenced assessments are measuring how much a student has mastered specific skills in those content areas. (Slavin, 2020)

            A general-intelligence test is also known as an Intelligent quotient (IQ) test. This measure a wide range of mental characteristics and skills. Some of the areas measured include memory, knowledge, vocabulary, and problem-solving. Typically, IQ is measured using the child’s age divided by the mental age and multiplied by 100. This score has a mean of 100 with a standard deviation of 15. Typically, IQ for average intelligence will range from 85 to 115. (Slavin, 2020) Above-average would be anywhere above 115 and could indicate possible giftedness. Below average would be anywhere below 85 and could possibly indicate learning disabilities and a need for special education.

            An achievement battery is a standardized assessment that is used to measure individuals or groups in a wide variety of subject areas. The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) is one such test used to “measure the growth of all students in the United States on reading, math, science, and writing” (Slavin, 2020, p. 396). The NAEP is given about every two years for math and reading.

            Criterion-referenced assessments can also be in the form of a battery, diagnostic, or single-subject test. These assessments differ from other achievement assessments in the way in which they are scored. These assessments would be used to determine who can do the specific content or skills, not measure the percentages or percentiles of students. (Slavin, 2020) Georgia used to give a criterion-referenced assessment for their state testing called the Criterion-Referenced Competency Tests (CRCT). Georgia now gives the Georgia Milestones assessment which is actually a comprehensive summative assessment.

            Standardized tests are interpreted based on the raw scores or the derived scores such as percentile or grade equivalent scores. A percentile score will compare a group of students in rank order with the rank of 50 being the mean. Grade equivalent (GE) scores compare students using scores such as 4.3 to state 4th-grade 3^rd month. This does not mean that a student in 3^rd grade could skip a grade level based on the GE score. Another type of score is a standard score. This would measure according to positions on a normal curve. (Slavin, 2020)

            Some issues that arise with standardized testing come from the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) education laws. This causes issues with accountability in the areas of abuse to the testing set, standards, and other testing-related areas. (Slavin, 2020) To ensure standardized tests are used for their purposes validity and reliability are important. Validity refers to the relevance of the test for the intended purpose. Reliability refers to the accuracy of how knowledge and skills are measured. A test can be reliable even if it isn’t valid. If a test is not valid, it can’t be reliable. (Slavin, 2020)

            Other issues include test bias where some students of low-income or diverse backgrounds may not test well. Students of the middle class or white backgrounds may tend to test better on some specific skills or have better schools to promote instruction geared toward understanding. Sensitivity is related to bias where some test questions could be considered stereotyping, and these types of questions should not be used. (Slavin, 2020)

            Computerized testing is now more common in schools. A computer-adaptive assessment depends on students' answers to questions to determine if the next question will be harder or easier. These tests can give an accurate picture of skills that students understand and don’t understand. Some studies have compared test scores of papers and computer tests and shown that after the first year, computer test scores are comparable to those on paper. (Slavin, 2020)

            Testing accommodations can be given for students with disabilities and students who are English Learners. Some controversy is there about accommodations, however, if given close guidelines by policymakers these accommodations do not give an added boost to students who need them. They make the playing field more even. (Slavin, 20200

            With ESSA, accountability, accountability goals, low-performing schools, and Title 1 funding come into play. Since the federal government provides about 7% of the funding for public education, these policies and laws can influence states to follow the guidelines set forth such as adopting the Common Core standards. (Slavin, 2020)

            Evidence-based reform is where the stakeholders would use evidence-based research to make improvements within the school or district. The school may see that students are performing low in reading comprehension and seek evidence-based practices or programs that can be implemented by using a clearinghouse to search for these programs. (Slavin, 2020) Slavin (2020) states that “ESSA is encouraging the use of programs with “strong,” “moderate,” or “promising” evidence of effectiveness” (p. 412).

            Teachers can use data to inform their teaching. Some schools use benchmark assessments throughout the year as few as three and up to eight times to determine student progress and what areas or skills need to be addressed. The data-driven teaching is where the teacher uses the data from these benchmark assessments to determine such things as small groups, and individual student conferences if a student needs a recommendation for more assistance. The teacher can determine what skills to work on based on the data from those assessments. (Slavin, 2020)

            One area that is key in assessments that are used for accountability is not all schools are equal in the student input. A value-added assessment can determine how much learning any school has added to its students. This can help them compared to other schools using whatever baseline they need such as specific types of students who may have more risk factors. (Slavin, 2020)

            The intentional teacher can use standardized testing to understand students' progress in specific contents or skills. The intentional teacher will learn and know about the intended uses of those standardized tests, and the types of tests, and can interpret the scores. The intentional teacher can understand the reliability and validity of a test and compare national norms. Most importantly, the intentional teacher will “know how to use benchmark data to inform their teaching and school planning” (Slavin, 2020, p. 418)

Reflection

 I feel that it is important for me to understand the intended use of a specific assessment. I also do feel that it is important for me to understand if a test is reliable and valid. I also feel that some assessments have high stakes that can veer from their intended use, and this causes problems for students, parents, and educators.

In my classroom, I will use the county-wide benchmark assessments to let me know where my students stand compared to other students in the school and district. However, I feel that better use of these assessments is to let me know where I need to reteach skills and who may need extra assistance or intervention.

            I can be a better teacher by helping my students learn the skills that are in the standards. I can also use my knowledge of assessments, accountability, reliability, and validity to help me decide on the types of information that are useful in conferencing with parents and teaching my students. I will also keep a portfolio to share with parents in conjunction with standardized test scores so that the parent can be more informed about their child’s progress.

 

Reference

Slavin, R. E. (2020). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (13th ed.). Pearson Education. https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B088HBVY4X/ref=kinw_myk_ro_title

 

Reflection Blog Entry 6 Week 7 - Effective Classroom Management

Description

The focus for EDAT 6115 this week was on effective classroom management. In Chapter 11 Slavin helps us to understand the impact of time and time management on student learning and prevention of misbehavior. Slavin discusses how teachers can prevent and manage routine misbehaviors. Slavin shares strategies for prevention of and response to student behavior problems. Slavin shares how the knowledge of effective learning environments can inform the intentional teacher. (Slavin, 2020)

Analysis

            Slavin shares that an effective learning environment will include strategies that teachers can use to create a positive productive classroom. “The most effective approach to classroom management is effective instruction” (Slavin, 2020, p. 280). To have an effective learning environment the classroom should be well organized with activities, instruction, and materials that will use time wisely from the start of the lesson or class period to the end of the allotted time. It is more important how the time is used in the classroom than the amount of time on the clock. (Slavin, 2020)

            Teachers should use the allocated time wisely to prevent off-task behaviors. To prevent loss of time teachers should make good use of all of the time allocated and available. This will include making sure that classes and lessons start on time to show students that learning is important. Teachers should also use all of the time up to the last minute so that students are not shortchanged by ending lessons early or going overtime and preventing them from being on time for other lessons, classes, or activities. (Slavin, 2020)

            Some strategies for preventing interruptions were included. To prevent interruptions teachers can put a “do not disturb” sign on the door during lessons, have a basket for papers that need the teacher’s attention, and postpone anything that can and should be postponed until the time between lessons or after school. (Slaving, 2020)

            Teachers should teach procedures early in the year and model those routines and procedures. The students may need gentle reminders occasionally. Some examples include calling the whole row to line up once they are ready rather than one student at a time and having designated times for pencil sharpening and restroom. Use student power to pass out and take up materials. (Slavin, 2020)

            Teachers should maintain a rapid pace of instruction to keep students engaged and on task. Teachers should also minimize the amount of time spent on discipline during lessons. Also, teachers should use the engaged time effectively. (Slavin, 2020)

            While engaging students in lessons, teachers can maintain a rapid pace and use a variety of modes of presentation. Teachers should also offer frequent opportunities for students to participate in the learning to cut down on the amount of seatwork. (Slavin, 2020)

            Slavin shared three rules for managing classroom transitions. Teachers can give a clear signal such as a code word, bell, or hand signal when students are to transition. Make sure students know what they are to do once they have transitioned. Be sure to have all students make the transition at once rather than one at a time. (Slavin, 2020)

            Teachers should have a plan for maintaining group focus during lessons and seat work. Teachers can also use overlapping to continue lessons while addressing minor behaviors. Teachers should also be careful not to overdo time on task as this is not beneficial to student creativity and higher-order thinking skills. (Slavin, 2020)

            Slavin did share that in a student-centered classroom the classroom management style will look a bit different. The teacher will need to spend time addressing the rules for cooperative and peer work during group student-centered learning. The focus should be to maintain student learning and promote a social community that promotes learning and good behavior. (Slavin, 2020)

            Some key practices can help a teacher build and maintain an effective classroom management system. One of the biggest things is to start the school year off right by establishing the rules and procedures. The teacher can involve the students in the creation of the rules. The rules and procedures must be clear, specific, simple, and explained and taught from the first day of school. The teacher should only have a few rules. The rest would be procedures. Slavin shared four “all-purpose” rules such as being courteous, respecting others’ property, being on task, and raising hands to be recognized. (Slavin, 2020)

            Slavin shared several strategies for maintaining routine misbehavior. The principle of least intervention includes procedures such as prevention, nonverbal clues, praise of correct behavior, praise of other students, verbal reminders, repeated reminders, and consequences for behavior. Slavin also shared that Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) can be used to manage more serious behaviors. (Slavin, 2020)

            Some reasons for misbehavior include gaining teacher attention, gaining peer attention, and release from unpleasant activities. Once the reason or target behavior is identified through observation, the other steps to (ABA) include establishing a baseline, choosing a reinforcer, choosing a punisher, observing behavior during implementation to compare to the baseline, and when the behavior is reduced from the program, reduce the frequency of reinforcement. (Slavin, 2020)

            To prevent serious behavior problems teachers can use prevention programs, identify the cause of the misbehavior and find rewards to use as incentives, enforce the rules fairly, and enforce school attendance. Some other ways to the prevention of behavior problems include practicing interventions, getting the family involved, using peer mediation, confronting bullying, and judiciously applying consequences for behaviors. (Slavin, 2020)

            Slavin says that “intentional teachers are leaders in their classrooms who take responsibility for managing time, activities, and behaviors” (Slavin, 2020, p. 306) The intentional teacher will plan instructional time, minimize interruptions, focus on increasing engaged time, start the year right, manage routine misbehavior, use positive classroom management methods, appl proved practical behavior modification as needed, use proven methods such as group contingencies and home-based reinforcement, involving parents, and apply consequences. The intentional teacher will always use praise and reinforcement and reserve punishments as a last resort. (Slavin, 2020)

Reflection

I feel that the concept of having an effective classroom management system in place is exactly what is needed for my first graders. The biggest points that really impacted me were the idea of having a few rules that students help create and using that time allotted wisely.

Effective learning environments, classroom management, and time management will affect my classroom going forward. Last school year I started off thinking I could just do positive behavior management. My class felt out of control, and I spent a lot of time dealing with behaviors. I struggled with time management due to student behavior, but also because I would overshare and get off on a tangent.

I can use what I have learned to become a better teacher. I have been working with some classmates in another course that gave me a few ideas for addressing these issues. One idea was to use a timer on my ViewSonic Board to keep myself and my students on track. Another idea was to begin the year by having the students help me create no more than five rules. I will write them on chart paper and have all of the students and myself sign the rules. Then, we can post it near our school-wide expectations PBIS matrix. The last idea was to keep a little checklist/chart to use as I walk around the classroom to check student work during independent and group work. This will help me keep track of who understands and who doesn’t at a glance. This will help me plan future lessons and small group times. The ideas and strategies that I found in Slavin’s work that I will try are just making sure that I start and end lessons at the appointed times so that students learn the importance of learning and are not short-changed. One other area that I will be working on is using class rewards as incentives as this will be useful for maintaining good behaviors.

  

Reference

Slavin, R. E. (2020). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (13th ed.). Pearson Education. https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B088HBVY4X/ref=kinw_myk_ro_title

 

Reflection Blog Entry 5 Week 6 - Constructivist View of Learning

 Description

The focus for EDAT 6115 this week was on the constructivist view of learning. In Chapter 8 Slavin identifies key concepts of the constructivist view of learning and the implications for classroom practices. Slavin discusses effective ways to use cooperative learning in the classroom. Slavin describes how teachers can teach students problem-solving and thinking skills. Slavin also helps identify how the intentional teacher would use constructivist ideas in the classroom (Slavin, 2020)

Analysis

            This chapter begins with a scenario of Mr. Dunbar who effectively shows how to use the cooperative learning in the classroom. Mr. Dunbar gave some brief hints and related to a previous lesson to have students ready to explore for this lesson. Mr. Dunbar’s students worked in groups of four to find solutions to solving the problem, they encouraged each other, and they tested their theories to solving the problem. After, Mr. Dunbar had them go help other students who were struggling. (Slavin, 2020)

            According to Slavin the constructivist view of learning is when students construct the knowledge in their own brains and then the teacher facilitates the students to help make the learning meaningful. (Slavin, 2020) During the constructivist revolution the main work that was used to drive this theory of learning came from Piaget and Vygotsky. Social learning, Zone of Proximal Development, Cognitive Apprenticeship, and Mediated Learning (scaffolding) are some of the key ideas drawn from Vygotsky. Both Piaget and Vygotsky also stressed ideas that are used in constructivism such as using mixed-ability learning groups. (Slavin, 2020)

            Top-down processing is where students begin with complex problems and work toward a solution or with teacher guidance discover those basic skills that are required to complete the problem. This is different that bottom-up instruction where the teacher begins with basic skills and builds slowly upon those skills. Top-down would allow the students to use higher order thinking skills to test out ways to solve problems before they are given help. (Slavin, 2020)

            Peer interaction has a great impact on student learning. During collaborative learning students can learn from other ways to think critically about solutions to problems. There is an emphasis on the social nature of learning with peer interaction. (Slavin, 2020)

            Discovery learning is where students are encouraged to learn using their own active involvement in the learning process. Many museums use stations set up for discovery learning. In a classroom where students maybe trying to solve problems such as volume of cylinders such as Mr. Dunbar’s classroom, students are in charge of the learning. However, guided discovery where the teacher facilitates is much stronger at helping students gain meaning in the learning. (Slavin, 2020)

            Self-Regulated Learning is where students have knowledge of an effective learning strategy, how to use it, and when to use it and they are able to solve problems or read for comprehension or write. The students would also need to have the motivation and persistence to effectively self-regulate their learning. (Slavin, 2020)

            Slavin shared may constructivist approaches to learning in the various content areas. One approach  about writing is that students are engaged with writing process models, using graphic organizers, and having students working in collaborative groups. (Slavin, 2020) Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI) is another approach to learning in upper grades of elementary school. In mathematics, students could work together is small groups to solve problems such as the example given of Mr. Dunbar’s classroom. Discovery learning is a great way to approach science for the constructivist learning experience. (Slavin, 2020)

            There is significant research that supports specific types of constructivist methods. However, since the methods are so diverse, and some include more informal ways of using constructivism, the research is not as well defined. There is more research conducted on some specific forms of cooperative learning methods such as STAD, Jigsaw II, CIRC, and Learning Together where the cooperative learning has some essential conditions met. There has to be recognition for the group, and there has to be individual accountability. (Slavin, 2020)

            One area of the world where students will need to work well with others or on teamwork is in the 21^st century workplace. As students begin to learn those skills in the classroom, they can translate them into productively using those skills in the workplace later in life. (Slavin, 2020)

            Slavin states that, “Students cannot be said to have learned anything useful unless they have acquired the ability to use information and skills to solve problems” (Slavin, 2020, p. 209) In general, the way to teach problem solving strategies should involve teach students to identify the problem, define the resources and information, determine how to represent the problem, and putting this into steps to solve the problem. (Slavin, 2020) Slavin also listed other means of teaching problem solving such as means-ends analysis, extracting relevant information, and representing the problem. (Slavin, 2020) To teach students to creatively problem solve, Slavin suggested some strategies that can help such as incubation (pause and reflect), suspend judgment (brainstorming), appropriate climates (relaxed, fun atmosphere), analysis, engaging problems (intrigue the student), and feedback from the teacher. (Slavin, 2020)

            Slavin suggests that one way to teach thinking skills is to create a “culture of thinking” within the classroom and daily lessons. Use the four-step process of sate the problem, search for solutions, evaluate, and elaborate. In the table Slavin shared, we can see many ideas on how to use the four-step strategy.

            Critical thinking is a key objective of schooling. We have toe teach students to use their knowledge to make rational decisions. Students need to determine when text or media are being misleading. Students need to learn how to practice the skills that will help them use critical thinking skills. The classroom tone should be free to have opinions during discussion and have a diverse set of perspectives. (Slavin, 2020)

            The intentional teacher will be one who knows how to structure activities that will be student centered and use constructivist methods. This teacher will give students many and frequent opportunities to create or discover knowledge one their own. Intentional teachers use effective forms of cooperative learning, teach problem-solving skills, and teach critical-thinking skills. (Slavin, 2020)

 

 

Reflection

I feel about the concept of constructivism in learning is a solid one. I have used many of the key ideas in my classroom over the years. I used a jigsaw grouping during a reading activity that mostly went well. There is a lot of planning that is involved. Student centered learning in my opinion is the better way to learn. As I am continually a student myself, I can say that for me I learn better when I have to put my own critical thinking skills to task. I know my students will as well.

In the context of my classroom, I have used pair-share, collaborative groups, and jigsaw. I have tried to teach those problem-solving skills using a method called “CUBES” where the student circles key numbers, underlines the question, puts a box around action words, eliminates and evaluates the problem, and then solves the problem. This has helped many of my struggling students with math problems. In reading, I have tried to help students make connections using those thinking strategies. When we were writing opinions, I shared some advertisements. We talked about the difference between facts and opinions. My little first graders actually began using those strategies and beating me to the punch in lessons.

I can use what I learned to become a better teacher by using a more formal way of having students work in collaborate groups. One area that I found that will need to be worked on is having specific protocol for working in groups. Also, I need to have individual accountability and group rewards for those collaborative groups.

Hattie (2008) stated “The model of visible teaching and learning combines, rather than contrasts, teacher centered teaching and student-centered learning and knowing” (p. 26) I agree with Hattie that both methods of learning need to be in place. I feel that to truly differentiate learning, we need to bear in mind that each person learns differently. Some may need more teacher directed learning where others can handle more student centric learning. Hattie also stated that, “constructivism is not a theory of teaching, but a theory of knowing and knowledge” (Hattie, 2008, p. 26) I agree with this. Students are there to gain knowledge, we can facilitate that knowledge in student centered activities, or we can present that as new knowledge in teacher led learning.

 

 

 

 

 

Reference

Hattie, J. (2008). Visible learning A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Routledge.

Slavin, R. E. (2020). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (13th ed.). Pearson Education. https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B088HBVY4X/ref=kinw_myk_ro_title

 

Reflection Blog Entry 4 Week 5 - Direct Instruction and Effective Lesson Planning

 

Description

The focus for EDAT 6115 this week was on how develop effective lessons within the classroom, including direct instruction. In Chapter 7 Slavin defines what direct instruction is and describes how to teach a lesson using direct instruction and all of its components. Slavin also describes the best way to teach transfer of learning. Slavin helps the reader to identify instructional practices and situations where discussions are more useful than direct instruction. Slavin helps the reader understand how knowing how to create effective lessons will inform intentional teaching for the intentional teacher. (Slavin, 2020)

Analysis

            This chapter begins with a scenario of Ms. Logan who uses all of the aspects of effective lessons while she incorporates multiple teaching strategies to keep her students engaged. This teacher used a unit or lesson that lasted over four different lesson periods where she used direct instruction, discussions, cooperative learning, and constructivist types of learning where the students helped to build their own knowledge. (Slavin, 2020)

            According to Slavin (2020), “Direct instruction is used to describe lessons in which teachers transmit information directly to students, structuring class time to reach a clearly defined set of objectives as efficiently as possible” (p.166). Slavin continues on to let us know that this type of instruction is appropriate for teaching skills or standards that all students must master at the grade level. There are seven parts to a well-planned direct instruction lesson plan. These parts include state learning objectives and orient students to the lesson, review prerequisites, present new material, conduct learning probes, provide independent practice, assess performance and provide feedback, and provide distributed practice and review. (Slavin, 2020) Slavin provides a few examples of a direct instruction lesson plan for different grades and subjects. These lessons follow what Slavin refers to as a logical sequence. (Slavin, 2020) According to Slavin, research does show that direct instruction can be beneficial to students, however the research is not clear on when direct instruction should be used or implemented. (Slavin, 2020)

            Slavin states that a concept is an idea which can be generalized. Concepts such as color could be generalized and then transferred to many different objects of the same color. Slavin uses this concept as a simplistic example but notes that some concepts are more complicated such as learning about justice. (Slavin, 2020) Some concepts can be learned by seeing examples or learning the definition of a word. Students need to be able to take these concepts that they learn in school and transfer them to their real-life and daily interactions. (Slavin, 2020) Teachers will need to be able to teach students how to apply concepts to the real world. Students may learn an initial concept in school within the context of the subject they are learning. However, the teacher will need to use many examples to show how those concepts can apply to the real world. (Slavin, 2020)

            Slavin teaches us that discussion should be a part of learning and instruction. Some discussions can open up to where there may not be a right or wrong answer. Some of the discussion topics could be subjective or controversial, some could be about difficult and novel concepts, or they could be concerned with affective objectives. (Slavin, 2020) A whole class discussion “differs from a usual lesson because the teacher plays a less dominant role” (Slavin, 2020, p. 186). Before holding a whole-class discussion the teacher must prepare the students with knowledge of the topic. Students would then be able to participate in a meaningful way while the teacher is more of a moderator of the discussion. A small group discussion is different in that the students would work together is smaller discussions of four to six students. The teacher would still moderate, however the teacher would move around the room checking in with the groups to see how the discussions are progressing. Each group may have different topics, or they could all have the same topics. Again, the teacher would need to prepare the students in advance with the information needed to have a productive discussion. (Slavin, 2020)

            Slavin helps us to understand that the intentional teacher would be careful in selecting the appropriate teaching strategies for each lesson. The teacher would have a purpose behind the selection of various strategies. The intentional teacher would plan lessons where they are in alignment with the objectives. The intentional teacher would follow the seven parts of the direct instruction lesson plan. The teacher would also provide appropriate times of holding whole-group and small-group discussions where students can learn cooperatively.  (Slavin, 2020)

 

Reflection

I felt that the concept of direct instruction hit home for me. I struggled this past school year with moving from teaching special education where I primarily worked with small groups to teaching a whole class. I had a model to follow, however it was not as laid out as the seven steps that Slain introduced. I agree that there needs to be a well-planned lesson including when I will ask questions. I think even first graders can learn the concepts of small-group discussions if the concepts are taught well. One thing that I do feel was done well was transferring concepts to real life.

In my classroom my students picked up quickly when we would use the technique of “this reminds me of” or “I can connect this to my life because” when we were reading. We also used those same strategies with math. I did feel that I lacked the ability to get my students to stay on track with classroom discussion and small-group or partner talk.

I feel that following the plans laid out by Slavin will help me be a better teacher because I will be more intentional in my planning of direct instruction, differentiation, and discussion groups.

 

Reference

Slavin, R. E. (2020). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (13th ed.). Pearson Education. https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B088HBVY4X/ref=kinw_myk_ro_title

Reflection Blog Entry 3 Week 4 - Information Processing Theory and Its Implications for Daily Classroom Practices

 

Description

The focus for EDAT 6115 this week was on information processing theory and its implications for daily classroom practices. In Chapter 9 Slavin described different ways of grouping students to accommodate various achievement differences amongst students. Slavin gives us a list of ways to differentiate classroom instructions for the diverse needs of learners in the classroom. Slavin also discusses ways technology can be used to effectively accommodate and differentiate within the classroom. Slavin discusses how the intentional teacher can use grouping, differentiation, and technology to effectively teach students with a variety of learning styles and academic levels.

Analysis

            Slavin begins this chapter with a scenario of a fourth-grade math teacher who has taught a fantastic lesson where students were engaged and getting answers correct during classroom discussion, however the students do not do well on the assessment even after a re-teach of the long division skills. The teacher asks one student how they got the first test correct and the student lets the teacher know that they were taught long division the previous school year. This scenario shows that some students lacked basic addition, subtraction, and multiplication skills needed to perform long division. In the end, the teacher needed to find a way to differentiate the instruction for students who were behind and those who understood and were ready for the lesson. (Slavin, 2020)

            Slavin (2020) states that “you must be concerned with many elements of instruction in addition to the presentation of information. You must know how to adapt your instructions to the students’ levels of knowledge” (p. 220). One other area of concern for the teacher in the scenario was student motivation. Students must be motivated to learn as well as having the prerequisite skills to learn the new skill. Slavin introduced us to several models of instruction that can affect the overall classroom learning.

            Slavin discusses John Carroll’s Model of School Learning and QAIT. “Carroll proposes that learning is a function of (1) time actually spent on learning and (2) time needed to learn” (Slavin, 2020, p. 220). In the QAIT model quality of instruction, appropriate levels of instruction, incentive, and time are all important components of instruction. (Slavin, 2020) The quality of instruction may be one of the most important components due to the fact that the curriculum and the lesson presentation are in need of being of great quality. Another important component is having the appropriate level of instruction. Instruction should not be too difficult or too easy for students. Students may give up if the task is too difficult, and they may become bored if the task is too easy. Students also need to be motivated with an appropriate incentive. Some incentive may come from knowing intrinsically that they got it correct. Other incentives may be extrinsic in the forms of grades, praise, stickers, or candy. The teacher must have the appropriate amount of time allotted to teach the skills and students must have an appropriate amount of time to learn and practice those skills. (Slavin, 2020)

            When grouping students, there are several models that have been practiced over time. Some models create more problems than solutions. Other models have research to back up and prove their effectiveness. Slavin compares the between-class ability grouping and the within-class ability grouping. Between-class grouping is primarily seen in middle-school and high-school levels. Research has shown that this is not as an effective model for students who score lower or come from low-income families. The within-class ability grouping is seen primarily in elementary grades and most often with reading groups. This method has been researched mostly with math and proven to be effective. (Slavin, 2020) At the elementary level the Joplin Plan is a type of regrouping where students are grouped across grade levels for a specific area such as reading but otherwise remain in their mixed-ability classes for all other learning. (Slavin, 2020)

            Retention is another topic discussed by Slavin where the research has shown that in the long-term retention could prove more harmful than helpful. Students who have been retained are at greater risk of dropping out of school. “An extra year of education is a very expensive intervention” (Slavin, 2020, p. 228). According to Slavin, the cost of this intervention could be as much as $12, 300. It may be better to focus on prevention rather than retention.

            Slavin discusses a variety of ways to differentiate instruction. He defines differentiation as being able to adapt instruction or content to the academic level or pace of the students in the classroom for the different needs of those students. (Slavin, 2020) Computers can assist in the differentiation needs of students. Working is small groups or having peer tutoring are other ways to differentiate instruction. One type of differentiation is called personalized instruction where the teacher attempts to design learning for each individual student. This produces its on set of problems such as basically designing 20-30 lessons per day for the classroom of students. Also, students would be moving at their own pace where they are at 20-30 different levels. A solution to this would be offering tutoring. (Slavin, 2020)

            Tutoring can be done by certified teachers, but this is much more expensive for the families. Tutoring can also be done by other professionals who are not certified teachers. Expensive programs such as Reading Recovery can be used, but Slavin reported that less expensive programs or just helping with homework could be effective. Peer tutoring proved more effective because it was student to student teaching. Peer tutoring was found most effective with cross-age tutoring. Cooperative learning takes place with same-age peer tutoring and can also be effective. (Slavin, 2020)

            For students who are at risk, there are several programs in place to begin interventions before the student begins school. Head Start is one program that is across the nation designed to help those low-income families introduce learning such as phonemic awareness to their children before they come of age to enter school. Head Start is one type od compensatory education. Title 1 is another compensatory program designed to help students of low-income families once they enter school. Early Intervention Programs (EIP) are another way to help students who are at risk of failure. With EIP, students are given interventions as early as possible to bring them closer to if not right to academic grade levels. Comprehensive School Reform (CSR) is another way that schools can work to use research-based methods to intervene and prevent failure for students who are at risk. Another way to assist students is the use of after school  and summer programs.

            Slavin suggest that the intentional teacher will consider all of the issues discussed to see to the students’ needs in the classroom. Intentional teachers will balance the lessons to include QAIT, use groupings, differentiate instruction, one-to-one instruction and small group instruction as needed, use programs such as Title 1 and EIP, and promote summer school rather than retention. (Slavin, 2020)

            Slavin discusses several ways technology is used in the classroom. He does mention interactive white boards as well as computers and tablets. Slavin also mentions using a multimedia approach to teaching to reach various learning styles. Slavin mentions a variety of ways that teachers and students use technology such as word processing, desktop publishing, spreadsheets, and databases. Also, students may use computer assisted instructions, drill and practice, and tutorial programs. A teacher needs to be mindful in the use of technology within the classroom. Research does note that the access to technology does not necessarily mean a great learning experience. (Slavin, 2020)

            An intentional teacher with technology “uses technology to accomplish well-defined goals that they cannot accomplish as well without technology” (Slavin, 2020, p. 249) Some ways that an intentional teacher can accomplish this is to prepare lessons that are engaging, use a variety of visual media, replace worksheets, give students feedback, use for assessments, student projects, planning lessons, and connecting with other teachers. (Slavin, 2020)

 

Reflection

I feel that using a variety of methods in the classroom will help my students learn and grow. I used individual and small group instruction to preview and review as needed for those students who were struggling or had missing gaps in learning. I had one little girl in my classroom who entered first-grade without really having kindergarten due to COVID and doing virtual school. I had to help her get those basic skills such as letter names and sounds before she could be successful in moving on toward first-grade phonics. Also, I used technology to help me differentiate using programs designed to send me reports as well as let me make specific assignments based on skills needed for the individual students.

This concept is significant concerning the context of my classroom. I have been able to see success for students who were struggling. I had six students who were being served for EIP and of those six, two were able to successfully complete the school year with Bs on their report card. The other four were moved to RTI level 3 for more interventions. Two of them were retained because they just still did not get to grade level. It was not an easy decision to retain the two because I know that this puts them at risk down the road for dropping out of school. I also used the technology, peer-tutoring, and small groups to allow students a variety of ways of learning skills that were needed for grade level as well as filling in gaps.

I will use what I learned to become a better teacher by implementing a more balanced lesson approach. I will specifically plan those small groups as well as peer-tutoring. In the past, I pulled students as needed or grouped them as needed often on the fly. In the future, I will use the

 

 

Reference

Slavin, R. E. (2020). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (13th ed.). Pearson Education. https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B088HBVY4X/ref=kinw_myk_ro_title

Reflection Blog Entry 2 Week 3 - Behavioral Learning Theories and Social Learning Theory

Description

The focus for EDAT 6115 this week was on behavioral learning theories and social learning theory. In Chapter 5 Slavin defined the concepts of learning and described the principles of behavioral learning theories with the implications for practice in the classroom. Slavin also described social learning theories and their implications for classroom practices. Slavin explained how these theories can influence intentional teaching.

Analysis

            Slavin opens this chapter by using several quotes to describe or define learning. At the core, learning is when a change takes place after an intentional lesson or activity where a child, student, or person has most likely made a permanent change in thoughts or abilities. (Slavin, 2020) Slavin goes on to discuss Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner and behavioral learning theories. Pavlov was known for the classical conditioning theory. He used dogs and a bell to condition the dog to salivate at the sound of the bell because he introduced the food with the bell at the beginning. The unconditioned stimulus would have been the food, the unconditioned response was the salivation. The conditioned stimulus becomes the bell. (Slavin, 2020)

            Skinner was known for the operant conditioning theory. Skinner “proposed that reflexive behavior accounts for only a small proportion of all actions” (Slavin, 2020, p. 103). In this theory, Skinner believed that if a person’s behavior was rewarded with pleasure, the behavior would occur more frequently. (Slavin, 2020) This is used often in the Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) system in many schools where students receive immediate rewards for positive behaviors.

            There are ore some specific principles of behavioral learning that apply. Consequences that are positive will enhance and create reoccurrence of the desired behaviors. Consequences that are negative or unpleasant will create a weakening of the occurrences of the non-desired behaviors. (Slavin, 2020) Reinforcers can be used to increase the frequency of a desired behavior. There can be positive and negative reinforcers. The Premack principle is “we can promote behaviors by making access to something desirable contingent on doing something less desirable” (Slavin, 2020, p. 106). Intrinsic reinforcers would be internal rewards. Extrinsic reinforcers would be external rewards such as stickers, candy, etc.

            Punishers are those types of consequences that are intended to reduce undesired behaviors, but hey may does not have that result. If a student wants your attention, they may be willing to seek the negative attention right along with any positive attentions. A presentation punishment is when a student is scolded, a removal punishment is when a child loses a privilege or is removed from the situation. (Slavin, 2020)

            Consequences must occur immediately for them to shape behaviors. If the positive or negative consequence is not immediately given, the child will not associate the consequence with the behavior that is desired or not desired. Extension is when the behaviors eventually disappear by withdrawing the reinforcer. (Slavin, 2020) Slavin continues on to give examples of schedules of reinforcement, maintenance, antecedents and their roles.

            Albert Bandura is known for developing Social Learning Theory. Bandura introduced modeling the behaviors as well as observational learning which involves attentional, retention, reproduction, and motivational phases. (Slavin, 2020) Slavin lists these phases with their definitions in chapter five. In short, attentional is paying attention, retention is imitation, reproduction is matching, and motivational is imitating because of reinforcement. (Slavin, 2020) Vicarious learning is where one student decides to behave because they see another get a reward. Self-Regulated learning is when we make self judgements on our own successes and failures and learn from them.

 

Reflection

I feel that the behavioral and social learning theories do apply to teaching well. I use the PBIS system in my classroom and reward students for doing as they are asked or even going above and beyond. This helps promote positive behaviors in the classroom. This is significant in my classroom because when I have had to react or respond to negative behavior, I have also noticed that the reactions are not as great as when I am able to give rewards for positive behaviors.

I will used what I learned to become a better and more intentional teacher by letting my students know the classroom expectations in advance. I will also work with them to create those expectations so that they are more aware of the rewards and consequences associated with the expectations. I will also continue to use real life situations to connect students to the context of the lessons being taught to reinforce the learning. I will also work with my students to set goals for learning and behavior and conference with them weekly about those goals that they set.

 

 

 

Reference

Slavin, R. E. (2020). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (13th ed.). Pearson Education. https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B088HBVY4X/ref=kinw_myk_ro_title

Reflection Journal Entry 1 Week 2 - Cognitive, Language, and Literacy Development

 Description

Paper contained a describe section that contained who, what, when, where, and how. The focus for EDAT 6115 this week was on cognitive, language, and literacy development and its implications for daily classroom practice. In Chapter 2 Slavin discussed Piaget’s theory of human development with his four stages of development, Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner’s theories of development, stages of language and literacy development, and knowledge of how cognitive, language, and literacy development can inform intentional teaching. Slavin relates how each of these theories and developments can have an impact on teaching and classroom practices. One theme that ran through the chapter repeatedly is to plan and develop lessons based on the knowledge of these developmental stages.

Analysis

Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky have had major influences on teaching and education practices. Both developed theories of cognitive learning that are used to influence how the teacher teaches at the various grade levels.

In the classroom environment teachers play a key role in the development and influence on the child. Parents also play a key role in the development of children within the home environment. No mater the natural or inborn abilities a child has through their genes, the adults and others in their inner circle have a great deal of influence. In fact, at this point in our history, most believe that a combination of nature and nurture influence the development of a child and their successes. (Slavin, 2020)

Jean Piaget, who was born in 1896, based many of his findings and theories on his observations of his own children rather than a larger sample size of children. Piaget felt that there were four stages of cognitive development. Piaget believed that “young children demonstrate patterns of behavior or thinking called schemes” (Slavin, 2020, p.24) Piaget also felt that as development happens children adapt, assimilate, or accommodate according to the new information from trying out old schemes on new objects. Piaget also believed that the testing of schemes can create a state of disequilibrium, imbalance, and that as most people tend to not like being unbalanced, they will seek to create a state of equilibrium, balance. (Slavin, 2020) Piaget would be considered a constructivist, where the cognitive development is viewed as a process and as the stages develop the child will actively build systems that help them understand meaning of their world. (Slavin, 2020) Piaget believed there were four stages of cognitive development. Sensorimotor, birth to age 2, is where babies and toddlers use their hands and mouths to explore their world. By the end of this stage, they are planning more than just accidentally discovering. Preoperational, 2 to 7 years old, is where the child can use more symbols to represent objects in their world. They are still more egocentric and self-centered in their thinking since they believe everyone thinks as they do. Concrete operational, 7 to 11 years old, is where children begin to think more logically. Their thinking becomes less centered as they realize that everyone does not view things the same way they think. Formal operational, 11 years to adulthood, is where children can think more abstractly. Children at this stage begin to think more like adults and can use more systematic experimentation to solve problems. (Slavin, 2020)

In today’s time, many of Piaget’s principals have been challenged. Research is ongoing, and this research shows some contradictions in Piaget’s key ideas. Slavin pointed out several examples of research that contradict Piaget with regards to tasks can be taught earlier than the established stages, children can consider points of view, infants can demonstrate object permanence, children are more competent, and there is doubt about the broad stages set forth by Piaget. (Slavin, 2020)

Slavin points out that Piaget’s theory has had a great influence on education. Developmentally appropriate education, “an education with environments, curriculum, materials, and instruction that are suitable for students in terms of their physical and cognitive abilities and their social and emotional needs” (Slavin, 2020, p. 32), is a term that one hears often in the world of teaching. Piaget has also been influential in education where “constructivist models of learning” are concerned. (Slavin, 2020)

Lev Vygotsky and Piaget were working in the same time period; however, they may not have ever met one another. Vygotsky believed that “intellectual development can be understood only in terms of the historical and cultural contexts children experience” (Slavin, 2020, p. 33) He also believed that childhood development was influenced by the sign systems that the child would group up with in their own environment and culture. (Slavin, 2020) Vygotsky was different than Piaget. While Piaget thought children developed at predetermined stages, Vygotsky believed that children would learn and then develop based on that learning. Vygotsky believed in private speech, the sone of proximal development, mediation, scaffolding, and cooperative learning. Each of these principals of development are heavy influencers of education today. (Slavin, 2020)

Urie Bronfenbrenner, 1917-2005, believed in a multi-system type of development. The figure on page 37 can be described as follows. In the center, microsystem – child only, inner ring, mesosystem – includes family, school, church, neighborhood, peers, and doctor, middle ring, exosystem – extended family, friends of family, media, neighbors, legal services, schoolboard, community services, and workplace, and the outer ring, Macrosystem – Broad ideology, laws, customs of culture, subculture, or social class. This theory can be considered as building on Vygotsky’s views of sociocultural factors. (Slavin, 2020) In education, the implication is that we can have an influence on the child’s development as part of their sociocultural factors.

Language and literacy development are also key factors that will heavily influence educators in the teaching of their students. Oral language is one the first areas of language development. Reading early in elementary is important. Students will develop reading skills in five key areas: phonemic awareness, phonics, comprehension, vocabulary, and fluency. (Slavin, 2020) Writing and mathematics also follow key developmental stages as the children are learning in school. An intentional teacher will “use what they know about predictable patterns of cognitive, literacy, and language development to make instructional decisions” (Slavin, 2020, p. 41)

Reflection

I feel that Piaget and Vygotsky have had a key influence on education. As I have planned out my lessons this year, I have tried to keep in mind the ages of my first graders as I teach the standards. I have tried to be a more intentional teacher as I have planned the lessons. In the context of my classroom, these theorists and the ideas of developmental stages have heavily influenced my planning. My students were learning phonics in first grade. I had to keep in mind that at the beginning of the school year, many of them could not read at all. Now, all of them are reading at a level based on their own assessment scores. I have planned small group and individual conferences with that in mind.

I will use what I learned to become a better teacher as I intentionally plan more opportunities for my students to collaborate with one another. I got frustrated the first few times I tried to use “turn and talk” so I didn’t do it as much. Now, I know that I need to plan that better from the start. I need to include my students in the development of the rules surrounding “turn and talk.”

Reference

Slavin, R. E. (2020). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (13th ed.). Pearson Education. https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B088HBVY4X/ref=kinw_myk_ro_title